ALBERT EINSTEIN

Albert Einstein was born at Ulm, in Württemberg, Germany, on March 14, 1879. Six weeks later the family moved to Munich, where he later on began his schooling at the Luitpold Gymnasium. Later, they moved to Italy and Albert continued his education at Aarau, Switzerland and in 1896 he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich to be trained as a teacher in physics and mathematics. In 1901, the year he gained his diploma, he acquired Swiss citizenship and, as he was unable to find a teaching post, he accepted a position as technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office. In 1905 he obtained his doctor's degree.

During his stay at the Patent Office, and in his spare time, he produced much of his remarkable work and in 1908 he was appointed Privatdozent in Berne. In 1909 he became Professor Extraordinary at Zurich, in 1911 Professor of Theoretical Physics at Prague, returning to Zurich in the following year to fill a similar post. In 1914 he was appointed Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and Professor in the University of Berlin. He became a German citizen in 1914 and remained in Berlin until 1933 when he renounced his citizenship for political reasons and emigrated to America to take the position of Professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeto. He became a United States citizen in 1940 and retired from his post in 1945.

After World War II, Einstein was a leading figure in the World Government Movement, he was offered the Presidency of the State of Israel, which he declined, and he collaborated with Dr. Chaim Weizmann in establishing the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Einstein always appeared to have a clear view of the problems of physics and the determination to solve them. He had a strategy of his own and was able to visualize the main stages on the way to his goal. He regarded his major achievements as mere stepping-stones for the next advance.

At the start of his scientific work, Einstein realized the inadequacies of Newtonian mechanics and his special theory of relativity stemmed from an attempt to reconcile the laws of mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. He dealt with classical problems of statistical mechanics and problems in which they were merged with quantum theory: this led to an explanation of the Brownian movement of molecules. He investigated the thermal properties of light with a low radiation density and his observations laid the foundation of the photon theory of light.

In his early days in Berlin, Einstein postulated that the correct interpretation of the special theory of relativity must also furnish a theory of gravitation and in 1916 he published his paper on the general theory of relativity. During this time he also contributed to the problems of the theory of radiation and statistical mechanics.

In the 1920's, Einstein embarked on the construction of unified field theories, although he continued to work on the probabilistic interpretation of quantum theory, and he persevered with this work in America. He contributed to statistical mechanics by his development of the quantum theory of a monatomic gas and he has also accomplished valuable work in connection with atomic transition probabilities and relativistic cosmology.

After his retirement he continued to work towards the unification of the basic concepts of physics, taking the opposite approach, geometrisation, to the majority of physicists.

Einstein's researches are, of course, well chronicled and his more important works include Special Theory of Relativity (1905), Relativity (English translations, 1920 and 1950), General Theory of Relativity (1916), Investigations on Theory of Brownian Movement (1926), and The Evolution of Physics (1938). Among his non-scientific works, About Zionism (1930), Why War? (1933), My Philosophy (1934), and Out of My Later Years (1950) are perhaps the most important.

Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicine and philosophy from many European and American universities. During the 1920's he lectured in Europe, America and the Far East and he was awarded Fellowships or Memberships of all the leading scientific academies throughout the world. He gained numerous awards in recognition of his work, including the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London in 1925, and the Franklin Medal of the Franklin Institute in 1935.

Einstein's gifts inevitably resulted in his dwelling much in intellectual solitude and, for relaxation, music played an important part in his life. He married Mileva Maric in 1903 and they had a daughter and two sons; their marriage was dissolved in 1919 and in the same year he married his cousin, Elsa Löwenthal, who died in 1936. He died on April 18, 1955 at Princeton, New Jersey.

From Nobel Lecture, Physics 1901-1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967

This autobiography/biography was written at the time of the award and first published in the book series les prix nobel. It was later edited and republished in Nobel Lecture . To cite this document, always state the source as shown above.

FUNGI

Fungi adalah nama regnum dari sekelompok besar makhluk hidup eukariotik heterotrof yang mencerna makanannya di luar tubuh lalu menyerap molekul nutrisi ke dalam sel-selnya. Fungi memiliki bermacam-macam bentuk. Awam mengenal sebagian besar anggota Fungi sebagai jamur, kapang, khamir, atau ragi, meskipun seringkali yang dimaksud adalah penampilan luar yang tampak, bukan spesiesnya sendiri. Kesulitan dalam mengenal fungi sedikit banyak disebabkan adanya pergiliran keturunan yang memiliki penampilan yang sama sekali berbeda (ingat metamorfosis pada serangga atau katak). Fungi memperbanyak diri secara seksual dan aseksual. Perbanyakan seksual dengan cara :dua hifa dari jamur berbeda melebur lalu membentuk zigot lalu zigot tumbuh menjadi tubuh buah, sedangkan perbanyakan aseksual dengan cara membentuk spora, bertunas atau fragmentasi hifa. Jamur memiliki kotak spora yang disebut sporangium. Di dalam sporangium terdapat spora. Contoh jamur yang membentuk spora adalah Rhizopus. Contoh jamur yang membentuk tunas adalah Saccharomyces. Hifa jamur dapat terpurus dan setiap fragmen dapat tumbuh menjadi tubuh buah. Ilmu yang mempelajari fungi disebut mikologi (dari akar kata Yunani μυκες, "lendir", dan λογοσ, "pengetahuan", "lambang").


Fungi dulu dikelompokkan sebagai tumbuhan. Dalam perkembangannya, fungi dipisahkan dari tumbuhan karena banyak hal yang berbeda. Fungi bukan autotrof seperti tumbuhan melainkan heterotrof sehingga lebih dekat ke hewan. Usaha menyatukan fungi dengan hewan pada golongan yang sama juga gagal karena fungi mencerna makanannya di luar tubuh (eksternal), tidak seperti hewan yang mencerna secara internal. Selain itu, sel-sel fungi berdinding sel yang tersusun dari kitin, tidak seperti sel hewan.

Fungi hidup menyerap zat organik dari lingkunganya. Berdasarkan cara memperoleh makannya, fungi mempunyai sifat sebagai berikut:
Saprofit
Parasit
Mutual

Fungi hidup pada lingkungan yang beragam namun sebagian besar jamur hidup di tempat yang lembab. Habitat fungi berada di darat (terestrial) dan di tempat lembab. Meskipun demikian banyak pula fungi yang hidup pada organisme atau sisa-sisa organisme di laut atau di air tawar. Jamur juga dapat hidup di lingkungan yang asam.

Fungi melakukan reproduksi secara aseksual dan seksual. Reproduksi secara aseksual terjadi dengan pembentukan kuncup atau tunas pada jamur uniselule serta pemutusan benang hifa (fragmentasi miselium) dan pembentukan spora aseksual (spora vegetatif) pada fungi multiseluler. Reproduksi jamur secara seksual dilakukan oleh spora seksual. Spora seksual dihasilkan secara singami. Singgami terdiri dari dua tahap, yaitu tahap plasmogami dan tahap kariogami.

PROTIST

Protists (pronounced are a diverse group of eukaryotic microorganism. Historically, protists were treated as the kingdom Protista but this group is no longer recognized in modern taxonomy. Instead, it is "better regarded as a loose grouping of 30 or 40 disparate phyla with diverse combinations of trophic modes, mechanisms of motility, cell coverings and life cycles."
The protists do not have much in common besides a relatively simple organization either they are unicelullar, or they are multicellular without specialized tissues. This simple cellular organization distinguishes the protists from other eukaryotes, such as fungi, animals and plants.
The term protista was first used by Ernst Haeckel in 1866. Protists were traditionally subdivided into several groups based on similarities to the "higher" kingdoms: the one-celled animal-like protozoa, the plant-like protophyta (mostly one-celled algae), and the fungus-like slime molds and water molds. Because these groups often overlap, they have been replaced by phylogenetic-based classifications. However, they are still useful as informal names for describing the morphology and ecology of protists.
Protists live in almost any environment that contains liquid water. Many protists, such as the algae, are photosynthetic and are vital primary producers in ecosystems, particularly in the ocean as part of the plankton. Other protists, such as the Kinetoplastids and Apicomplexa are responsible for a range of serious human diseases, such as malaria and sleeping sickness.

ARCHAEBACTERIA

Archaebacteria is a group of single-celled microorganisms. A single individual or species from this domain is called an archaeon (sometimes spelled "archeon"). They have no cell nucleus or any other organelles within their cells. In the past they were viewed as an unusual group of bacteria and named archaebacteria but since the Archaea have an independent evolutionary history and show many differences in their biochemistry from other forms of life, they are now classified as a separate domain in the three-domain system. In this system the three main branches of evolutionary descent are the Archaea, Eukarya and Bacteria. Archaea are further divided into four recognized phyla, but many more phyla may exist. Of these groups the Crenarchaeota and the Euryarchaeota are most intensively studied. Classifying the Archaea is still difficult, since the vast majority have never been studied in the laboratory and have only been detected by analysis of their nucleic acids in samples from the environment. Although archaea have, in the past, been classed with bacteria as prokaryotes, this classification has been described as outdated, since it fails to distinguish between the three very distinct domains of life
Generally, archaea and bacteria are quite similar in size and shape, although a few archaea have very unusual shapes, such as the flat and square-shaped cells of Haloquadra walsbyi. Despite this visual similarity to bacteria, archaea possess genes and several metabolic pathways that are more closely related to those of eukaryotes: notably the enzymes involved in transcription and translation. Other aspects of archaean biochemistry are unique, such as their reliance on ether lipids in their cell membranes. The archaea exploit a much greater variety of sources of energy than eukaryotes: ranging from familiar organic compounds such as sugars, to using ammonia, metal ions or even hydrogen gas as nutrients. Salt-tolerant archaea (the Halobacteria) use sunlight as a source of energy, and other species of archaea fix carbon; however, unlike plants and cyanobacteria, no species of archaea is known to do both. Archaea reproduce asexually and divide by binary fission, fragmentation, or budding; in contrast to bacteria and eukaryotes, no species of archaea are known that form spores.
Initially, archaea were seen as extremophiles that lived in harsh environments, such as hot springs and salt lakes, but they have since been found in a broad range of habitats, such as soils, oceans, and marshlands. Archaea are particularly numerous in the oceans, and the archaea in plankton may be one of the most abundant groups of organisms on the planet. Archaea are now recognized as a major part of life on Earth and may play an important role in both the carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle. No clear examples of archaeal pathogens or parasites are known, but they are often mutualists or commensals. One example are the methanogenic archaea that inhabit the gut of humans and ruminants, where they are present in vast numbers and aid in the digestion of food. Archaea have some importance in technology, with methanogens used to produce biogas and as part of sewage treatment, and enzymes from extremophile archaea that can resist high temperatures and organic solvents are exploited in biotechnology.

SOFTWARE

Disebut juga dengan perangkat lunak, merupakan kumpulan beberapa perintah yang dieksekusi oleh mesin komputer dalam menjalankan pekerjaannya. perangkat lunak ini merupakan catatan bagi mesin komputer untuk menyimpan perintah, maupun dokumen serta arsip lainnya.
Merupakan data elektronikyang disimpan sedemikian rupa oleh komputer itu sendiri, data yang disimpan ini dapat berupa program atau instruksi yang akan dijalankan oleh perintah, maupun catatan-catatan yang diperlukan oleh komputer untuk menjalankan perintah yang dijalankannya.
Untuk mencapai keinginannya tersebut dirancanglah suatu susunan logika, logika yang disusun ini diolah melalui perangkat lunak, yang disebut juga dengan program beserta data-data yang diolahnya. Pengeloahan pada software ini melibatkan beberapa hal, diantaranya adalah sistem operasi program, dan data. Software ini mengatur sedemikian rupa sehingga logika yang ada dapat dimengerti oleh mesin komputer.